TOWARDS A SCOTIAN COASTAL PLAIN BIOSPHERE RESERVE FOR SOUTHWESTERN NOVA SCOTIA
Christopher A. Miller1, Munju M. Ravindra2, and J.H. Martin Willison1,3
1Biology Department,
Dalhousie University,
Halifax, NS, Canada, B3H 4J1
2Faculty of Environmental Studies,
York University,
North York, ON, Canada, M3J 1P3
3School for Resource and Environmental Studies,
Dalhousie University,
Halifax, NS, Canada B3H 4H3.
Abstract
Canada has six functioning UNESCO/MAB biosphere reserves distributed from the Rocky Mountains to southern Quebec. There is a gap, however, in the Atlantic region. To correct this deficiency, we propose a cluster biosphere reserve be established in the coastal zone of southwestern Nova Scotia based upon an aggregate of existing protected sites. The proposed region is exceptionally well endowed with protected natural areas in all three of its constituent sub-zones (terrestrial, coastal, and marine). Forestry and fishing are the economic mainstays of the region, and thus these natural resource extractive industries would be the focus of the research in the proposed biosphere reserve. Development of the tourism potential of the region would also be an important undertaking. In this context, the designation of the town of Lunenburg as a UNESCO World Heritage Site greatly enhances this biosphere reserve proposal.
The existing terrestrial protected areas include Kejimkujik National Park, the Tobeatic Wilderness Area (and three other wilderness areas of the Nova Scotia systems plan of parks and protected areas), several nature reserves, and the Shelburne River which has recently been proclaimed as a Canadian Heritage River. Protected areas in the coastal zone include the Seaside Adjunct of Kejimkujik National Park, migratory bird sanctuaries, provincial parks, and several protected beaches. The existing marine conservation areas include two long-term fishery closures on offshore banks (Western/Emerald and Browns) and three whale sanctuaries (Grand Manan, Sable Island Gully, and Roseway Basin). An additional nearshore marine protected area in the vicinity of Port Joli is also proposed. In the terrestrial component of the proposed biosphere reserve, existing protected areas would comprise the core areas, provincial Crown land would form the buffer zones, and privately owned land would constitute the transition zone, or "area of cooperation". The concept of a buffer zone, however, is more difficult to apply in the marine environment.
The UNESCO/MAB "people-in" approach to conservation is outlined in this paper and potential cooperating agencies and communities for our proposal are identified. Although further research is required before this proposal can be formally considered, its discussion among those living and working within the communities of southwestern Nova Scotia is considered a worthwhile step toward achieving sustainability. Since people living in the region have already experienced a wide range of habitat-based conservation tools, and have voluntarily encouraged the use of marine protected areas in fisheries management, the region is considered unusually well suited for research in sustainable living, for which the MAB biosphere reserve approach was designed.
It is proposed that the site be named the "Scotian Coastal Plain Biosphere Reserve" in recognition of the region's intrinsic natural and cultural connections between the land and the ocean. The coastal plain (the continental margin of North America) symbolizes this connection because it has long been subjected to changes in sea levels brought about by past glaciations. Places that are marine today, for example, were often terrestrial in the past. This seamless continuity between the land and the sea shapes not only the landscapes of Atlantic Canada, but its people. A representative biosphere reserve in this region should, therefore, reflect this deep-rooted connection with the ocean. The proposed Scotian Coastal Plain Biosphere Reserve would be a means of facilitating this goal.
Sommaire
Le Canada possède six réserves UNESCO/PHB en activité, qui sont réparties sur le territoire qui va des Rocheuses au sud du Québec. Toutefois, il n'en existe pas dans la région de l'Atlantique. Afin de corriger cette lacune, nous proposons la création d'une réserve de la biosphère constituée en fusionnant les sites protégés existants de la zone côtière du sud-ouest de la Nouvelle-Écosse. La région proposée est exceptionnellement riche en sites naturels protégés, dans les trois sous-zones qui la constituent (terrestre, côtière et maritime). La foresterie et la pêche constituent les principales activités économiques de la région et, de ce fait, les recherches relatives à la réserve de la biosphère proposée seront axées sur ces industries d'extraction des ressources. La mise en valeur du potentiel touristique de la région serait également importante. Dans ce contexte, la désignation de la ville de Lunenburg en tant que Site du patrimoine mondial de l'UNESCO accroît sensiblement l'intérêt de la proposition de réserve de la biosphère.
Les secteurs terrestres protégés existants incluent le parc national Kejimkujik, la zone naturelle Tobeatic (et trois autres zones naturelles du plan de parcs et de secteurs protégés des systèmes de la Nouvelle-Écosse), plusieurs réserves naturelles et la rivière Shelburne, qui a récemment été déclarée rivière du patrimoine canadien. Les secteurs protégés de la zone côtière incluent l'Annexe côtière du parc national Kejimkujik, les réserves naturelles d'oiseaux migrateurs, les parcs provinciaux et plusieurs plages protégées. Les secteurs de conservation maritimes existants incluent deux secteurs où la pêche est interdite à long terme sur les bancs situés au large (Western/Emerald et Browns) ainsi que trois réserves de baleines (Grand Manan, Gully de l'île de Sable et bassin Roseway). Un secteur maritime protégé supplémentaire situé à proximité du rivage près de Port Joli est également proposé. En ce qui trait à la composante terrestre de la réserve de biosphère proposée, les secteurs protégés existants comprendraient les secteurs centraux, les terres de la Couronne provinciales constitueraient les zones tampons et les boisés privés constitueraient la zone de transition ou « secteur de coopération ». Le concept de zone tampon, toutefois, est plus difficile à appliquer dans le contexte maritime.
La stratégie de conservation de l'UNESCO/PHB axée sur la participation des communautés est soulignée dans le présent document et les organismes et collectivités susceptibles de coopérer à notre proposition sont également précisés. Même si d'autres études devront être effectuées avant que cette proposition ne soit officiellement étudiée, on estime qu'en débattre avec les collectivités qui résident dans le sud-ouest de la Nouvelle-Écosse ou qui y travaillent constituerait un progrès sur la voie de l'objectif de durabilité. Étant donné que les personnes qui résident dans la région ont déjà fait l'expérience d'une vaste gamme d'outils de conservation axés sur les habitats et qu'elles ont volontairement prôné la création de zones de protection marine dans le cadre de la gestion des pêches, la région est considérée comme convenant particulièrement bien aux recherches sur la viabilité des espèces, pour laquelle la formule de réserve de la biosphère du PHB a été conçue.
Nous proposons que le site soit nommé « Réserve de la biosphère de la plaine côtière Scotian » compte tenu de l'interdépendance naturelle et culturelle intrinsèque entre les terres et l'océan dans la région. La plaine côtière (frange continentale de l'Amérique du Nord) symbolise cette interdépendance, étant donné la succession des changements du niveau de l'eau provoqués par les glaciations, depuis des temps très anciens. Par exemple, nombre de secteurs recouverts par la mer à l'heure actuelle étaient terrestres dans le passé. Cette continuité entre la terre et la mer façonne non seulement les paysages de l'Atlantique du Canada, mais également leurs populations. Une réserve de la biosphère représentative de cette région devrait donc refléter ces liens de dépendance profonds avec l'océan. La réserve de la biosphère de la plaine côtière Scotian proposée constituerait un outil susceptible de faciliter l'atteinte de cet objectif.
Introduction
The UNESCO biosphere reserve concept focuses on the idea that experiments in sustainable living are a necessary prerequisite for human adaptation to natural limits of growth, particularly in regions where local economies are dependent upon the development of natural resources. Although Atlantic Canada is just such a place, no biosphere reserve has yet been established in the region. The living resources of the ocean and the forests are central to Atlantic Canadian economies, providing the basis for a variety of industries related to marine fisheries, and to the harvesting of wood fiber. We have, therefore, examined the relevance and application of the biosphere reserve concept to Atlantic Canada and have explored how such a concept could integrate both the fishing and forestry sectors of the economy. The southwestern portion of Nova Scotia has been selected as the focus of our study.
In this paper we list and discuss the attributes that make southwestern Nova Scotia an excellent candidate for UNESCO biosphere reserve designation, and identify some of the likely partners in this conceived cooperative venture. We also recognize that tourism is a developing industry in the region, and we discuss briefly the role that a biosphere reserve would have in assisting the growth of this potentially sustainable industry.
UNESCO/MAB and Biosphere Reserves
The biosphere reserve concept was initiated by the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) in 1971 with the creation of the Man and the Biosphere (MAB) Programme (UNESCO 1984), and has been evolving ever since (Di Castri et al. 1981). MAB is an international endeavor that seeks to balance the conservation of biological diversity with the economic and cultural survival of local peoples (Batisse 1997; Laserre and Hadley 1997) by promoting the notion that man is an integral component of, and not isolated from, the natural world (Batisse 1982). A further intention of the MAB Programme is to develop models that demonstrate how to conserve the ecological integrity of a region, while still allowing for sustainable resource use, and to better understand the structure and function of the environment in which we all live (Herrmann 1990).
Biosphere reserves are multifunctional terrestrial, coastal, and/or marine geographical regions where the above objectives are developed, refined, and demonstrated. They are administered to facilitate conservation, research, education, and sustainable development through cooperative agreements between universities, governments, industry, and local communities (Batisse 1986). To date, 337 biosphere reserves in 85 countries have been officially established by UNESCO/MAB (Laserre and Hadley 1997) and many more are likely to be nominated in the near future (Agardy 1997). Together, they form the World Network of Biosphere Reserves (UNESCO 1996).
Biosphere Reserve Concept
The biosphere reserve concept is based upon three complementary roles: (1) conservation [protecting and maintaining landscapes, ecosystems, habitats, species, and genetic diversity], (2) development [fostering socio-culturally and ecologically sustainable economic development], and (3) logistic [providing an operational framework for research, monitoring, education, training, and exchange of information related to global, national, and local conservation and development issues] (Batisse 1986; UNESCO 1996).
In order to meet the global conservation objective, biosphere reserves are to be established in all 193 of the earth's terrestrial biogeographical provinces (von Droste 1988) to protect representative examples of the planet's unmodified natural ecosystems and landscapes (Dyer and Holland 1991). Furthermore, some biosphere reserves target areas of endemism, genetic richness, and unique natural features (UNESCO 1984). Since biosphere reserves are designed to contain a mosaic of undisturbed natural areas and those modified by human activities, these reserves are often ideal for studying the degree to which humans are altering the environment through resource extraction, and for measuring how natural spaces and ecological processes respond to anthropogenic perturbations of environmental regimes (von Droste 1988). Collaboration between peoples, organizations, and communities participating in the biosphere reserve, and between reserves themselves, is expected to lead to the emergence of sustainable management and economic development initiatives.
Biosphere Reserve Design
In order to facilitate conservation, research, education, and sustainable development, biosphere reserves are spatially divided into zones of varying degrees of anthropogenic disturbance, notably: core areas, buffer zones, and transition areas (see: Batisse 1986).
The core areas of a biosphere reserve promote the conservation role of UNESCO/MAB by protecting unmodified natural ecosystems and processes of significant ecological value. In essence, core areas conserve representative examples of landscapes and 'hotspots' of biodiversity, and are often established in pre-existing protected areas. These sites strictly control, and often prohibit, local anthropogenic stresses (Batisse 1982) often making them valuable areas for the collection of baseline scientific data for monitoring human impacts on a region (Herrmann 1990). The global system of biosphere reserves will therefore, in theory, facilitate global evaluation of human impacts on the biosphere (van Droste 1988).
Buffer zones surround the core areas to protect the most valuable ecological sites from environmental degradation (Wells and Brandon 1993) associated with human activities elsewhere within the biosphere reserve. These areas permit some low impact anthropogenic use, such as education, research, and tourism, but only if the ecological integrity of the core areas are not compromised by these activities (Kastenholz and Erdmann 1994).
The transition area, also known as the 'area of cooperation' (Batisse 1986) or 'zone of influence' (UNESCO 1984), is the region of the biosphere reserve that contains human settlements and allows for a wide range of anthropogenic activities. It is often vast in area, with no fixed outer boundary (Francis and Munro 1994), and will provide the opportunity for local landowners, communities, organizations, industry, and municipalities to participate in the functionings of the biosphere reserve (Agardy 1997). The purpose of the transition area is to develop sustainable resource management practices, and to promote local cooperation for sustainable livelihoods.
The idea of 'clustering' emerged at a joint USA-USSR Symposium on biosphere reserves and was endorsed by the MAB Programme in 1977 (Batisse 1986). Clustering occurs when a group of core areas and associated buffer zones are utilized within a single region identified as a biosphere reserve. This strategy has proven quite successful, especially in areas that have been highly fragmented by human activities. Efforts may be undertaken within a clustered biosphere reserve to plan for integrated conservation, such as connecting isolated core areas through wilderness corridors (von Droste 1988) to mitigate the ecological problems often associated with habitat fragmentation (Russell 1994). The 'cluster' approach is thought to be particularly appropriate when applying the biosphere reserve idea to a large geographical region (Francis 1993). It seems to be similarly ideal for application in the coastal zone, where the integration of management and conservation efforts in both terrestrial and marine environments introduces significant new challenges.
Coastal and Marine Biosphere Reserves
UNESCO/MAB has made the implementation of coastal biosphere reserves (including both terrestrial and marine components) one of its highest priorities (Batisse 1990). Given that two thirds of the world's population live along the coast, and that this zone is experiencing the highest rate of population growth (Agardy 1997), conservation within coastal areas requires our immediate attention. Unfortunately, establishing coastal biosphere reserves has proven to be a long, slow process (Ray and Gregg 1991). Slower still has been the promotion of conservation and sustainable development in the marine realm. Establishing marine biosphere reserves has been a particularly difficult undertaking because, until recently, the world's oceans have been considered so vast as to be beyond the human capacity to transform.
Difficulties
Effective marine protected areas tend to be more difficult to establish than their terrestrial counterparts because marine systems are often larger and more dynamic than those on land. Whereas most of the primary production on land comes from plants that are firmly rooted to the ground, most of the primary producers of the ocean realm are microscopic organisms that lie in the upper layer of the fluid water column and, therefore, move around with the ocean currents. The fluid nature of the marine environment poses a challenging dilemma for conserving oceanic resources.
Kenchington and Agardy (1990) refer to terrestrial protected areas as 'closed cells' and marine protected areas as 'open cells'. Marine areas are 'open' in that the fluid nature of the oceanic water column allows for relatively free exchange of nutrients, sediments, and pelagic species across the boundaries of a marine protected area. Even benthic communities can be linked to nutrient sources many kilometers away. Therefore, protecting a marine site by drawing a line on a two-dimensional map may not ensure the continued survival of the communities and processes targeted for conservation. There are, however, obvious exceptions to this rule. Marine protected areas can be effective tools for conserving sites such as coral reefs, deep sea vents, unique geologic features, narrow upwelling zones, marine mammal breeding sites, concentrations of benthic organisms, and communities of fish with strong attachments to specific sites.
Compounding the problem of conservation in coastal environments, terrestrial biologists have a tendency to forget the marine component of the coastal zone, while marine biologists often forget the terrestrial component (Batisse 1990). As a result, very few coastal protected areas conserve both the land and the sea. The MAB Programme recognizes this problem and is trying to overcome it by encouraging the creation of biosphere reserves that have both terrestrial and marine elements.
Strategies
The biosphere reserve concept is ideal for conserving marine systems because it promotes the notion of sustainable development for an entire region, rather than solely within a limited marine protected area. It also offers excellent opportunities to incorporate marine protected areas in fisheries management plans by involving whole coastal communities and their interests in planning processes. In many cases, a biosphere reserve offers the best viable starting point for conserving marine resources (Agardy 1997) because it promotes cooperation rather than exclusion.
In order to adapt the biosphere reserve design to marine and coastal environments, some special considerations are required. As Batisse (1990) outlined, the marine environment has two primary geographic components; the sea-floor and the water column. Although identifying an effective core area for the water column is difficult because of its fluid nature, creating one on the sea-floor to protect benthic communities is more feasible. Batisse (1990) has suggested that the water column above the sea floor core areas might be considered as a buffer zone or transition area in suitable circumstances. Alternatively, the water column above the sea floor site can be conveniently designated as a core area.
Generally, in order for a marine core area to be an effective conservation tool, it has to be much larger than its terrestrial equivalents to better accommodate the open nature of marine systems. 'Dynamic core areas' could also be used in places where complete exclusion of a human activity is not feasible, yet some level of enhanced conservation is desired (Agardy 1997). These dynamic core areas could provide seasonal protection, but still allow for some moderate, non-disruptive harvesting techniques at certain times of the year. Provisions could also be implemented to allow marine core areas to migrate as physical conditions within the ocean change over time (Batisse 1990). For example, as oceanic processes adjust or alter the geomorphologic landscape of the sea floor, a given core area could migrate in accordance with the movements of species requiring specific marine environmental conditions.
Kenchington and Agardy (1990) have proposed a variation on the standard biosphere reserve model. They suggest that since core areas might never entirely conserve in situ genetic diversity within the marine environment, because they would have to be impossibly large to do so, marine protected areas within the biosphere reserve should concentrate on the research role of the MAB Programme rather than the conservation role. The authors recommend the establishment of a series of 'reference sites'. These areas would serve as 'scientific reserves' and exclude all human activities that damage the marine environments contained within the ecological area. Baseline scientific data could then be gathered from a relatively undisturbed site, and compared to an intensively harvested one, to help us better understand how our fishing techniques alter marine ecosystems.
Biosphere Reserves in Canada
To date there are six established biosphere reserves in Canada, in addition to over twenty other areas that are currently being considered for designation (Birtch 1994). Although the existing biosphere reserves share the UNESCO/MAB label, they differ widely in character and management.
The two western biosphere reserves — Waterton Biosphere Reserve in Alberta and Riding Mountain Biosphere Reserve in Manitoba — are based on National Parks. The core and buffer areas are contained within the pre-existing protected areas and there is a flexible zone of cooperation in the surrounding rural municipalities (Roots 1989).
Moving east, the Long Point Biosphere Reserve in Ontario is based on a 32-km long sand spit on Lake Erie and includes a mosaic of different management areas, including two national wildlife areas, a provincial park, and a Ramsar site (Birtch 1994; Francis 1991). A second Ontario site is the Niagara Escarpment Biosphere Reserve. Located near Canada's largest city, and including the 105 parks of the Niagara Escarpment parks system, this biosphere reserve maintains a research focus on the pressure of human recreational activities on the natural environment (Birtch 1994; Canada/MAB 1990a).
With an area of only 5 500 hectares, Mont-Saint-Hilaire is Canada's smallest biosphere reserve. It is owned by McGill University and the nearly 500 publications resulting from its existence attest to its importance as a site for scientific research and monitoring activities (Canada/MAB 1997a). The Charlevoix Biosphere Reserve, east of Quebec city, is a multi-core biosphere reserve that has a locally-elected management board and a buffer zone that is home to approximately 30 000 people (Birtch 1994; Francis 1991; Canada/MAB 1990b).
Canadian biosphere reserves focus on a variety of issues and activities, including acid rain monitoring, forest ecology, human-wildlife interaction, farm management practices, private land stewardship, and visitor interpretation (Birtch 1994). Their activities are linked to each other, and to the international biosphere reserve network, by the Working Group on Biosphere Reserves; an organization of the Canadian national committee for MAB (otherwise known as Canada/MAB).
Although there are only six biosphere reserves in Canada thus far, Canada/MAB's National Action Plan has an objective to establish at least one biosphere reserve in each of Canada's fifteen biogeographical areas (Canada/MAB 1987). At present, nominations are being developed for two biosphere reserves in British Columbia - one in the Mount Arrowsmith area on the east coast of Vancouver Island (MABF 1997), and another in the Clayoquot Sound area (WCWC 1997). Plans are also underway in Nunavut to establish the coastal and marine Iqalirtuuq Biosphere Reserve in Isabella Bay. The successful designation of these proposed reserves will go some way towards achieving geographical representation in Canada. There remains, however, a large gap in Atlantic Canada.
Rationale for Selecting a Representative Biosphere Reserve in Atlantic Canada
Despite Atlantic Canada having landscape characteristics, outstanding values, and research communities compatible with the concept of the MAB programme, a biosphere reserve has yet to be established in this region. As we strongly believe that a biosphere reserve is greatly needed in this area, and as we feel this region can support just such a site, we looked for a sub-region that would be representative of Atlantic Canada as a whole, and that would also contain outstanding natural and cultural values, be dependent upon the exploitation of natural resources, have no large urban centers, and already be well supplied with terrestrial and marine protected areas.
The Atlantic region of Canada has several characteristic geographic and oceanographic features: an extensive coastline; forested interiors with plentiful lakes; thin soils often poorly suited to agriculture; and shallow, highly-productive marine shelves, mostly covered with sediments of glacial origin on offshore 'banks' (Davis and Browne 1997). A representative biosphere reserve in Atlantic Canada should contain all of these features.
Economically, ocean- and forest-related industries are significant in this region of Canada, with agriculture and manufacturing being less important than in many other parts of North America. There has been political pressure to diversify the region's economies, tourism being among the favored sectors for economic growth. For these reasons, a biosphere reserve in Atlantic Canada should be located in a region where forestry and fishing are economic mainstays and in which the development of tourism is feasible in the near future.
Since biosphere reserves are primarily concerned with the development of sustainable economies associated with the use of natural resources and conservation of ecological values (UNESCO 1984), the inclusion of an adequate amount of protected space is essential. Since conservation scientists have not agreed on the minimum quantity of protected spaces necessary to achieve sustainability (Noss and Cooperrider 1994), it is sensible to err on the side of caution, and thus a region with a relatively high proportion of space devoted to conservation should be considered more suitable for the establishment of an Atlantic Canada biosphere reserve than a region with a relatively low proportion.
Rationale for Selecting Southwestern Nova Scotia
Southwestern Nova Scotia meets all of the above criteria for the establishment of an Atlantic Canada biosphere reserve. It is representative of the region as a whole, contains outstanding natural and cultural values, is dependent upon the exploitation of natural resources from land and the sea, lacks a large urban center, and contains a relatively high concentration of terrestrial and marine protected areas.
In addition, Francis and Munro (1994) have already proposed that the region surrounding Kejimkujik National Park in southwestern Nova Scotia is a suitable candidate for a terrestrial biosphere reserve. This proposal was based upon the already existing concentration of research effort in the park (see: Drysdale 1995) and the importance of conserving rare coastal plain floral elements in the region. The good working relations between national park staff and several regional forest harvesting operatives (C. Drysdale, pers. comm.) is of additional benefit.
Kejimkujik National Park has two components, an interior forested park and a coastal 'adjunct', but there is not a marine element associated with the park. This is not a reason, however, to exclude the marine environment from an Atlantic Canada biosphere reserve proposal. The main reason for the lack of officially designated marine protected areas in this region, particularly at a distance from the shore (the 'offshore', as it is known locally), is that suitable legislation and policy for the establishment of marine protected areas was not in place in Canada until the passage of the Oceans Act in 1997 (DFO 1997). As shown below, however, fisheries regulations have been widely used in southwestern Nova Scotia to create fishery closed areas. There is, therefore, some precedent for considering conservation initiatives in the marine environment.
We, therefore, propose establishing a biosphere reserve in southwestern Nova Scotia that contains both terrestrial and marine elements. As is indicated in Figure 1, a Scotian Coastal Plain Biosphere Reserve could consist of a general wedge-shape, covering much of the terrestrial and marine environments of southwestern Nova Scotia, with two associated adjuncts; one near Sable Island and the other in the Bay of Fundy.
Existing Terrestrial Protected Areas
There is a remarkable concentration of terrestrial protected areas in southwestern Nova Scotia (see Fig. 2). Kejimkujik National Park is the most visited of these sites, but the largest protected area is the Tobeatic Wilderness Area lying adjacent to the national park. The Tobeatic is one of four wilderness areas in this region that have been slated for conservation through Nova Scotia's Systems Plan of Parks and Protected Areas (NSDNR 1994). The other three sites are Tidney River, Lake Rossignol, and Bowers Meadows Wilderness Areas. There are three nature reserves in the area that are officially protected under Nova Scotia's Special Places Protection Act — Sporting Lake, Ponhook Lake, and Tusket River-Wilsons Lake Nature Reserves — and several more are to be designated in the near future. In 1997 the Shelburne River was proclaimed under the Canadian Heritage Rivers programme when cooperative agreements were reached between governmental agencies and the forest harvesting company, Bowater-Mersey (DNR 1996). A list of terrestrial protected areas in the region is presented in Table 1.
Depending upon where a putative outer boundary of the proposed Scotian Coastal Plain Biosphere Reserve is drawn, approximately 25-30% of the region is already legally protected. An additional 30-35% of the land is in provincial Crown ownership, thereby making it easier to establish buffer zones and to reach cooperative agreements with companies that lease large forest harvest blocks from the government, than if the land was entirely privately held. This relatively high proportion of Crown land is especially important for this proposal because much of the rest of Nova Scotia is privately owned. Ideally, the existing protected areas would become core areas, Crown land would constitute buffer zones and corridors, while private land would predominantly form the transitional area of the terrestrial components of the Scotian Coastal Plain Biosphere Reserve.
Existing Protected Areas in the Coastal Zone
While the geographical area protected is not as great as in the fully terrestrial zone, there is a similarly large concentration of protected areas along the coast. In addition to the 'Seaside Adjunct' of Kejimkujik National Park, there are several provincial parks and protected beaches in the region (see Table 1 and Fig. 2). These are protected primarily for their amenity value and include Thomas Raddall, Summerville Beach, and Rissers Beach provincial parks. Several others, however, are protected for conservation purposes; most notably, a series of four migratory bird sanctuaries near Port Joli intended to provide feeding and rest stops for waterfowl migrating along the Atlantic flyway.
Existing Fishery Closures and Marine Conservation Initiatives
Under the Fisheries Act, regions of the ocean within Canada's exclusive economic zone may be closed to activities, such as dredging, that threaten to damage commercial fisheries, or degrade natural habitats (see: Shackell and Lien 1995). While these provisions have generally been used only after impacts on fisheries have been drastic, experimental fishery closures have been used on occasion in the past. Of special interest here is that the two largest long-term closures on the Scotian Shelf lie within the fishery management zones in the offshore regions of southwestern Nova Scotia (see Fig. 1). Generally speaking, the fishery for cod and haddock in the Northwest Atlantic Fisheries Organization (NAFO) sub-area 4X (within the boundaries of the proposed biosphere reserve) is often considered a model for the Nova Scotian fishery because it remained open to commercial fishing in the mid 1990s (albeit with reduced quotas) while other regions were closed to most fisheries.
The fishery closure on Emerald and Western Banks (NAFO sub-area 4W), known as the 'haddock box', has been in effect for over t10 years, with almost all types of fishing gear now excluded. It was put in place in 1987 because surveys showed that the by-catch of juvenile haddock was consistently high, which has been interpreted to indicate that it may be a possible nursery area for this important commercial groundfish species (Nancy Shackell, pers. comm.).
The Brown's Bank haddock box is closed to fishing between February 1 and June 15 during the haddock spawning season (K. Zwannenberg, pers. comm.). This legal closure was initiated at the request of fishermen in the region. The same general area is also closed to lobster fishing for conservation purposes. There is support among many local fishermen for these closures, there being a general belief that the measures are proving to be an effective conservation tool for groundfish and lobster stocks (B. Giroux, pers. comm.).
In addition to marine conservation measures established for commercial species in southwestern Nova Scotia, there are three whale sanctuaries in the general marine region, protected only through notices to mariners. Their locations are indicated in Figure 1. The Roseway Basin and Grand Manan sanctuaries are intended to protect Right whales (Brown et al. 1995), while that in the Gully was established to protect the threatened northern bottlenose whales (Faucher and Whitehead 1995).
Features of Outstanding Value
Southwestern Nova Scotia contains numerous outstanding values of national and international significance. These features, in addition to the representative and practical reasons described above, make the region ideal for the establishment of a biosphere reserve.
Southwestern Nova Scotia contains a disjunct population of rare coastal plain flora, separated from the mainland eastern seaboard population by the Bay of Fundy. These plant species embody evolutionary adaptations that allow them to survive in nutrient-poor, highly stressed, freshwater shoreline areas, where they cannot be competitively excluded by faster growing shrub species (Wisheu and Keddy 1994). The floral elements typically thrive in areas of intense ice scour, strong wave activity, and fluctuating water levels (Hill and Keddy 1992). Nova Scotia harbors endemic and globally rare coastal plain species, such as Euthamia galetorum, as well as those that are nationally endangered, including the water pennywort (Hydrocotyle umbellata) and the thread-leaved sundew (Drosera filiformis) (Francis and Munro 1994; Maher et al. 1977). Francis and Munro (1994) have proposed that a biosphere reserve in southwestern Nova Scotia would help to conserve and better manage these rare plant assemblages and their unusual ecological niches.
The Scotian Coastal Plain Biosphere Reserve would incorporate several unique terrestrial and marine landscape elements. The Sable Island Gully, for example, is the largest submarine canyon in eastern North America and is a site of strong upwelling and associated rich biodiversity (Shackell et al. 1996). Furthermore, the Gully is adjacent to Sable Island; an unusually distal, offshore sand spit (Davis and Browne 1997). The Bay of Fundy, like the Gully, exhibits strong water mixing and is known internationally for its concentrations of right and humpback whales, as well as for generating the world's highest tides. The proposed biosphere reserve would include the largest relatively undisturbed wilderness area in the Maritimes (the combined Tobeatic-Kejimkujik wilderness area), and in so doing, help protect the headwaters of dozens of river systems, some of which support Atlantic Salmon (Salmo salar) populations. Southwestern Nova Scotia also contains some of the last remaining patches of old-growth forest in the Maritimes. Places such as Sporting Lake, Big Dam Lake, Silvery Lake, and Big Pine Lake contain several isolated pockets of these ancient forest stands.
In addition to the coastal plain flora, the region supports a relatively high concentration of Canada's endangered, threatened, and vulnerable species (see Table 2). The endangered right whale (Eubalaena glacialis), piping plover (Charadrius melodus), and Acadian whitefish (Coregonus huntsmani) populations are of particular importance to the area. Right whales are concentrated in the Bay of Fundy and the Roseway Basin (Brown et al. 1995), while piping plover populations are found near the Kejimkujik Seaside Adjunct and elsewhere in the region. The Acadian whitefish is now reported exclusively within a single river in the proposed Scotian Coastal Plain Biosphere Reserve: the Petite Riviére (Davis and Browne 1997). The northern bottlenose whale (Hyperoodon ampullatus) is a threatened species found within the Sable Island Gully (Whitehead et al. 1997), while the threatened blandings turtle (Emydoidea blandingi) is most commonly located in Kejimkujik National Park (Kejimkujik 1995). Vulnerable species, such as the wood turtle (Clemmys insculpta), the ipswich sparrow (Passerculus sandwichensis princeps), and the humpback whale (Megaptera novaeangliae), are also present within this region. For a complete listing of the rare species found in the area, refer to Table 2.
The waters off Nova Scotia contain northern deepwater coral species. They are typically located at depths below 200 m along the continental slope and are vulnerable to certain fishing techniques; most notably to different types of dragging (Breeze 1997). These species can form extensive 'coral forests' and may provide essential habitat for economically important groundfish species. More research is required, however, to determine their distribution, morphology, and status as a keystone species.
The Shelburne Barrens candidate nature reserve, also located in southwestern Nova Scotia, is of exceptional scientific interest because it contains ecosystems that are naturally recovering from anthropogenic disturbance regimes (Miller 1997a). Research at this site may yield valuable information concerning the resilience of nature to certain types of human activities.
The outstanding value of southwestern Nova Scotia is not restricted to natural phenomena. The designation of the town of Lunenburg, in the region, as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1997 gives testimony to a rich cultural history. Since World Heritage Sites can often complement biosphere reserves (Vernes 1992), the close proximity of Lunenburg to the proposed Scotian Coastal Plain Biosphere Reserve greatly enhances this proposal.
Potential Cooperating Agencies and Groups
In order to formally designate a biosphere reserve, there must be extensive community involvement, as well as the support of cooperating agencies. Future work is required to identify these groups, but some of those whose support may be needed are listed in Table 3. Parks Canada is part of the Department of Canadian Heritage; migratory bird sanctuaries are the responsibility of Environment Canada; fisheries closures, whale sanctuaries, and most marine protected areas are the responsibility of the Department of Fisheries and Oceans; provincial parks and wilderness areas are currently administered by the Nova Scotia Department of Environment; and provincial Crown lands other than parks are administered by the Nova Scotia Department of Natural Resources. The planning departments of Queens, Shelburne, Yarmouth, Digby, and Annapolis Counties would be primary contacts at the municipal level.
The support of some non-governmental organizations, such as the Nature Conservancy of Canada and the Nova Scotia Nature Trust, would be valuable, as would that of commercial enterprises involved with the harvesting of natural resources. The long-term success of such a biosphere reserve would be contingent upon sufficient support from local resource user organizations, such as lobstermen's associations, fishermen's unions, and forestry associations. Since tourism development is relevant to this proposal, the support of local community economic development organizations, tourism associations, and sport and recreation providers might also be sought. The involvement of local Mi'kmaq bands and community organizations should be encouraged throughout.
Nova Scotia has an enviable record with regard to higher education and research. The universities and research institutions in Halifax contain the largest concentration of educational and scientific capacity in the Atlantic region. Ocean studies, life science, physical science, social science, and law, are strongly represented. Thus, the capacity to provide the research and scientific expertise to support a significant biosphere reserve exists only a short distance from the proposed site. Furthermore, in many ways, Kejimkujik National Park is already functioning as a biosphere reserve because of its focus on research and monitoring activities related to the Ecological Monitoring and Assessment Network (EMAN) and associated Smithsonian Institute - Man and the Biosphere (SI-MAB) biodiversity plots (Drysdale 1995).
Because this biosphere reserve proposal integrates a wide range of human endeavor, it will undoubtedly take some time before the idea will be generally understood (Kellert 1986). For this reason, a gradual approach involving extensive community consultation and discussion will be necessary. Efforts should be undertaken immediately to encourage local residents to participate in the development of this biosphere reserve proposal.
Potential Community Benefits
A biosphere reserve can produce a wide range of local community benefits ranging from generating financial gains to promoting a cleaner environment to enhancing cultural identity and cooperative links (Mullins and Neuhauser 1991). Increased tourism and employment opportunities are often created as well (Solecki 1994). The proposed Scotian Coastal Plain Biosphere Reserve would be no exception, and the communities of southwestern Nova Scotia should anticipate the benefits of living within a biosphere reserve.
Biosphere reserve designation will likely attract positive international attention to Atlantic Canada, which would in turn be likely to increase tourism-related revenues. This attention might also go some way to counteract the notoriety brought on by the fisheries management strategies that led to the collapse of the North Atlantic cod stocks and to the controversy generated by the seal hunting industry. Furthermore, the unique nature of a Scotian Coastal Plain Biosphere Reserve in the region would focus regional and national attention on southwestern Nova Scotia, attracting visitors, researchers, and media. A biosphere reserve in southwestern Nova Scotia is also likely to stimulate local creativity and enhance local expertise. Likely spin-offs could include pilot projects in regional sustainable agriculture or transportation, inter-community cooperation, green-housing, research and development into renewable sources of energy, and the restoration of degraded habitat. Most significantly, however, this biosphere reserve would provide a strong focus on management experiments in sustainable harvesting of potentially renewable oceanic and forest-related resources.
The UNESCO biosphere reserve concept is a means to facilitate the experiments necessary to develop a sustainable economy. By bringing together local communities and industries with academic and government research communities, solutions can be reached. These range from developing locally appropriate and economically feasible fisheries management strategies to pioneering and developing sustainable technologies. While these activities could occur, or are occurring, in the absence of biosphere reserve designation, the biosphere reserve label would serve to elevate the international profile of sustainable development innovations, and attract research and project funding to the region. This has the potential to benefit local enterprises directly, particularly those small, resource-based endeavors that often have difficulty obtaining research assistance. In the long run, local communities could benefit from the advantages of a sustainable lifestyle, and the dollars that economic spin-offs and tourism would generate.
Conservation Infrastructure Still Required
With the concentration of terrestrial, coastal, and marine protected areas in southwestern Nova Scotia, most of the conservation infrastructure necessary for an Atlantic Canada biosphere reserve is already in place. A few specific sites are still required, however, to better facilitate scientific research in the proposed biosphere reserve.
Missing, arguably, is an officially designated marine protected area adjacent to the shore. These sites are required to allow for the collection of baseline scientific data. Brothers (1997) and Miller (1997b) have examined the potential of Port Joli Harbour as a candidate site and recognize its importance for research and outdoor education. Also lacking is an officially designated offshore marine protected area. The Sable Island Gully or the Roseway Basin have been identified as suitable candidates (Lane & Associates 1992).
Several significant terrestrial ecological sites in the region, many of which have been candidate protected areas for over 25 years, would have to be legally protected under the Nova Scotia's Special Places Protection Act to accommodate the proposed Scotian Coastal Plain Biosphere Reserve. This would help prevent the ecological integrity of these sites from being compromised in the interim by development.
If the proposed protected areas described above have public support, and if they can be successfully implemented, then the Scotian Coastal Plain Biosphere Reserve proposal will be greatly enhanced.
Conclusions
Canada requires additional terrestrial, coastal, and marine biosphere reserves to complete its national system for UNESCO/MAB. Atlantic Canada is a case in point. Since a biosphere reserve should incorporate representative landscape features typical of the biogeographical province in which it is located, it is logical to establish a biosphere reserve in Atlantic Canada that incorporates both terrestrial and marine elements, given this region's strong ecological, economic, and socio-cultural attachments to the ocean. Limiting a biosphere reserve solely to the terrestrial realm would fall short of representing the natural and cultural features of this region of the biosphere.
Southwestern Nova Scotia appears to be an excellent site for the establishment of a biosphere reserve. This region is representative of Atlantic Canadian landscapes and contains numerous features of outstanding value. It is already well supplied with protected areas in terrestrial, coastal, and marine environments, and is dependent upon the sustainable use of its natural resources both on the land and in the sea. These features, in addition to the presence of a strong research community, make southwestern Nova Scotia an excellent choice for the establishment of Atlantic Canada's first biosphere reserve.
The proposed Scotian Coastal Plain Biosphere Reserve has the potential to benefit local communities directly, link numerous cooperative agencies, and facilitate the scientific research necessary to learn how to live within the ecological limits of the earth. This biosphere reserve would encourage sustainable living on land and in the ocean: a concept that is vital to the long-term well-being of Atlantic Canada.
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Table 1. Existing terrestrial, coastal, and marine protected areas in the proposed Scotian Coastal Plain Biosphere Reserve
Table 2. Rare animal species occurring within the proposed Scotian Coastal Plain Biosphere Reserve
Table 3. Potential cooperating groups and agencies in the Scotian Coastal Plain Biosphere Reserve
Figure 1. Existing coastal and marine protected areas in southwestern Nova Scotia and the general location of the proposed 'Scotian Coastal Plain Biosphere Reserve'
Figure 2. Existing terrestrial and coastal protected areas in southwestern Nova Scotia and the general location of the proposed 'Scotian Coastal Plain Biosphere Reserve'
